Financial Risk (Masters Level) Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Financial Risk (Masters Level) - Coursework Example It indicates the highest possible loss amount, which some portfolio will likely lose within a given time period at specified confidence level. A good example would be 95% daily VaR for $1 Million, could mean the likely hood for the same portfolio to lose over a million dollars within a worst day happens to be below 5%. In no way does this mean that such portfolio may not lose over a million dollars. The truth is that over one hundred days, the portfolio would be expected to lose over $1 million for five time approximately. In addition, this does not mean that an individual would not collectively loose significantly more along a longer horizon. Banks, mutual funds, hedge funds as well as other financial service companies or even brokers can utilize value at Risk. Most of such firms use VaR in prediction of size of outlying losses of the future, or even gains that their portfolios or those of their clients might experience (Ran & Jin, 2008: p 1). Most firms make use of VaR in the determination of needed collateral from an execution customer for some margin loan utilized in trading financial instruments, for instance. Buy-side entities like hedge funds make use of VaR in determining whether the allocation of a portfolio does exceed investment mandate or a current risk tolerance (BPL, 2015, 2). Despite the fact that VaR was not used broadly before mid-1990s, the measure’s origin date further back in time. Markowitz Harry and others developed the mathematics, which underlie VaR in portfolio theory context (Glyn, 200:p 32). However, their efforts aimed at a different destination (devising equity investors’ optimal portfolios). Specifically market risk focus as well as the co-movements effects in such risks are core to the manner in which VaR is computed (Ronald, Kees, & Rachel, 1999: P 2). The Motivation for VaR measures utilization, though, arose from the crises, which affected financial service firma through time as well as supervisory responses to such

William Blakes history and also compare five different poems Essay Example for Free

William Blakes history and also compare five different poems Essay In my essay I will give some information on William Blakes history and also compare five different poems. The poems I will compare are London, The Chimney Sweeper (Songs of Innocence) with The Chimney Sweeper (Songs of Experience). I will also compare The Lamb with The Tiger. I will explain the poems first and explain what I thought the poem was about when I read it and using this knowledge I will compare. William Blake was a profound genius to some, and a nutcase to others. A British poet, painter, visionary mystic, and engraver were some of his many occupations. Born in 1757 on November 28th William was the third of five children to a successful London hosier. William grew up in Soho, London where he was first educated at home, chiefly by his mother. From the age of 6, William Blake was amazed and intrigued by spirits; angels and ghosts. He saw and conversed with the angel Gabriel, the Virgin Mary and various other historical figures. Blake was always enclosed in his personal visions and always seemed to be in his own world. His visions and beliefs made William the man he was and the way he is portrayed to the world today. William was deeply influenced by gothic art and architecture and this showed in his work. After finishing his apprenticeship Blake set out to make his living as an engraver. After studies at the Royal Academy School, Blake started to produce his own watercolors and engravings for magazines. In 1782, Blake married Catherine Boucher, the daughter of a market gardener. Blakes life, except for three years at Felpham where he prepared illustrations for an edition of Cowper, was spent in London. Blakes poems were long flowing and had urges of violent energy. They were full of power and moments of tenderness. A poem thought to be like this would inevitably be associated with Blake. Blake was not blinded by rules, but approached his subjects wholeheartedly, with a mind not distracted by current affairs. On the other hand this made Blake an outsider. He approved of free love and sympathized with the actions of the French Revolutionaries but the reign of terror disturbed him. He believed that as all men are born equal, that there should be only one social and economic level. Royalty such as Kings and Lords were seen as being in a league with the devil as they regarded themselves as being above other men. Blakes paintings and engravings, notably his illustrations of his own works are realistic in representing the human anatomy and other natural forms. However his paintings were rejected by the public as he was called a lunatic for his imaginative work. Blakes religious beliefs stemmed from a long tradition in Britain of Christian dissenters whom refused to accept the established church. This tradition was opposed to established religion, was suspicious of the monarchy and the role it played in religion and had long railed against corruption and abuse of power in the Church and Monarchy. Blake lived during a time of intense social change. The American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the Industrial Revolution all happened during his lifetime as well as the vicious backlash to these events by the British establishment. The Revolutions left William Blake disturbed and unsure of what was happening. English poet Appelbaum said, He was liberal in politics, sensitive to the oppressive government measures of his day, and favorably inspired by the American Revolutionary War and the French Revolution (Appelbaum v). As London shows, however, Blake did not entirely approve of the measures taken to forward the causes he longed to advance: London refers to how the hapless Soldiers sigh/ runs in blood down Palace walls Among many other events which took place during the French Revolution, this could possibly refer to the executions of the French royalty. William Blake died on August 12, 1827, and is buried in an unmarked grave at Bunhill Fields, London. Blake wrote Songs of Innocence and Experience in the 1790s. The main theme of the poems came from Blakes belief that children lost their innocence as they grew older and were influenced by the bad ways of the world. Blake believed that children were born innocent and pure but as they grew up, they became experienced as they were influenced by the beliefs and opinions of adults and others around them. When this happened they could no longer be considered innocent and pure. The poems from Songs of Innocence were written from an innocent childs perspective. The poems from Songs of Experience were written from the perspective of a more experienced person. London (Songs of Innocence) Songs of Innocence features the politically powerful poem London. Blake wandered through the streets of London and sees the streets and even the river suffering under political oppression. Everyone he passes, he sees signs of misery and moral weakness. He notices the expressions and emotions ordinary people are feeling. He doesnt just see the misery of the sweep, the soldier, the prostitute or the baby; he also hears it in their cries, sighs and tears. He puts himself in their shoes and sees the churchs spirit blackened as the institution has allowed the fall of beliefs. He is writing about the reality of London and what the war has done to London. He does not see any life in the faces he sees as he walks, he sees faces of weakness and woe as London seems to have been taken over. It seems even the streets and the river Thames have been taken over by the rich, the poor people seem to be there for the rich peoples amusement. For instance, he describes the Thames and the city streets as chartered or controlled by commercial interests. He refers to mind-forged manacles; he talks of the mens faces and their weakness, marks of woe. William is becoming increasingly frightened of what the future holds as diseases are spreading and the public is becoming disillusioned about the reliability and honesty of politicians. William Blake wants to know what happened to the society that London had, when pain and misery was not the only feeling felt. Blake feels owned, like he is a nobody, he feels he does not have the right to be him anymore. He sees the dying soldiers last breath as if it is blood running down the royal palace walls. Blake has never seen such an unhappy era. He talks of marriage and death, which us an oxymoron as they are both opposites to add effect. Everything natural Blake sees as owned. He has no voice to speak out, no freewill and no opinions. Even if he was to try no one would listen. Blake is furious as he sees nature as Gods creations, Blake is angry that people seem to be owning what is not theirs. London seems to be more about society than William Blakes life but it does have an element of his childhood and how society was portrayed to him. He sees it as a struggle for everyone and how everyone puts on a front as if their emotions are locked away. There is a division between the rich and the poor and he does not see why. He does not see why the rich get priority when there are others in need more. I think he uses his childhood to be able to express his feeling as a child and give a direct image of how the division of classes and status caused misery. Compared to the Chimney Sweeper; London is more about society and politics and how he believes people made the wrong decisions. He because of this he has suffered and the children who are growing up will suffer too. The Chimney Sweeper is more about William Blakes childhood and how he was fooled by the world. It is connected to London as politics and society do come in to it. Exploitation is also a theme as in The Chimney Sweeper the little chimney sweepers are being exploited and being taken advantage of and William Blake seems to be standing up for this; in London, he is standing up for the rights of everyone especially those living in poverty. He seems to want to help in both poems and make it better. He seems like a good person who wants to speak out of the terrible conditions because no-one else will. He speaks out by his writing; he says it all in his poems so it is clearer and more effective. The poems are in comparison as they both contain elements of society, politics and the rights of a citizen; or the rights William Blake believes we should have. Both talk about people in different classes; who have different statuses and their rights and responsibilities they should have. God is associated with both of these as William Blake put his faith in to God but no one seems to be getting the life they deserve. However in these poems I dont think God is the only one to blame, politicians and the government seem to of had an effect on William Blake. Enough for him to speak out. The Chimney Sweeper (Songs of Innocence) William is writing this poem in the perspective of a young boy called Tom. It is almost like William is talking of his own childhood but covering it up by using a different name. This is how William saw life when he was younger and what he thought of what was actually happening. The child monologue of Tom uses an innocent perspective on what is it like for a young boy to be living in such conditions and politically drastic decisions. William uses rhyming couplets to help the poem flow with ease. He talks of young boys working, being exploited and often killed because of the terrible conditions they have to face. He cleverly uses the word weep! By hiding sweep in it. He is using the movement the young boys had to do with the sound they made which was them weeping. I think this is a clever thing to do as it makes you think of what they had to do and how they felt about doing it. William is saying the young boys were not happy and were very scared. In the second stanza, William talks of how he actually sees Tom and what his relationship to Tom is. He talks about how little Tom Dacre cried when his head was shaved but William tries to bring light to this and make it into a joke. William says Hush, Tom! Never mind it, for when your heads bare, You know that the soot cannot spoil your white hair. William is trying to make Tom feel better by joking about it, and showing how it is practical for his hair to be shaved but it is like shaving off little Toms purity and innocence. It seems Tom has lost his identity with his innocence. Tom did not like the reality of the institutions and William talks of Tom having bad dreams about the other boys who sweep the chimneys all being locked up in coffins of black. Not coffins of white but coffins of black, showing a sad image of how bad he sees life. William uses the names Dick, Joe, Ned and Jack showing deep down they know their identity, but to others they are nobodies. This is an upsetting view of life for them, as they are so young and have their whole lives to live but honestly they cannot see the point of living. It is a terrible life; all he seems to talk of is death and blackness which should not be the things on a little boys mind. Tom seems to have been blackened by the chimney soot literally and in his mind he seems to be in darkness. He can not seem to see the light anymore. There is a glimpse of hope as William writes about an angel who Tom sees in his dreams: And by came an angel who had a bright key, And he opened the coffins and set them all free; Then down a green plain leaping, laughing, they run, And wash in a river and shine in the sun. This gives the image that Tom might have just seen the light and his darkness has been replaced by hope. It is a sad image but it brings hope for Tom like a kind of heaven. To have pure innocence and the freedom in the sun. I dont think this is just Toms view, I also believe this is William Blakes view on how he wished it could have been for him when he was younger. In the fourth stanza William writes of the little boys being naked and all white as if their innocence and purity which was taken away from them has come back. He writes how they rise above the clouds perhaps on their way to heaven and how Tom had an angel; which seems like a guardian angel who says if Tom is a good boy he will have God as his father and will never want joy. However this angel could be seen in a dark way, as the Angel of death, but Tom and William decide not to view it in this dark way and try to look to the positives. This shows Tom looks to God for help and wisdom, he believes in his faith and one day wants to be up there with God. The sixth stanza talks of how Tom sadly awoke from his dream and rose in the dark, collected his tools and went off to work. William writes Though the morning was cold, Tom was happy and warm; So if all do their duty they need not fear harm. I think this is showing how much Tom looks up to the heavens above and at God, as he believes one day he will be up there with the almighty people. He believes if he carries on doing his job and his duties, he will be happy and he need not fear harm as God is protecting him. I think this is also what William believed. William believed he was blessed by God and everything he saw and did was for a reason. Tom I also think believes this. That God is the only one that can help. He can bring the little childrens innocence and purity back and free their souls. The poem ends in hope for Tom and perhaps William. The Chimney Sweeper (Songs of Experience) This is very much a darker and more savage vision than that of The Chimney Sweeper (Songs of Innocence). Religion plays a big part in this poem and a lot is related to God. William talks of a neglected child and how religion has affected the child. The first stanza talks of the child looking for his mother and father, as they have gone up to the church to pray. From this first stanza it seems the childs parents are religious and look to God for help. The second stanza is in the past tense and talks of the child being happy upon the heath, smiling in the winters snow but then being clothed in the clothes of death; which he means the dark chimney sweeping clothes that have a sense of death. William writes about how the child was forced to work and taught the notes of woe. This is a sad image, as it seems the little child used to be happy and free, but was sent to work as a chimney sweeper and there he learnt the world of sadness and fear. He found out how to cry and be sad which once upon a time he did not know what sad was. However he has been taught to put on a front, to try and cover his sadness and woe with a happy smile so others cannot see that his condition is a sad one. It is like he is playing with death and any moment he could be gone. He feels mentally dead and inside he cannot feel anything but emptiness. In the third stanza, the child talks of how he tries to be happy by dancing and singing; giving the impression to others he is a happy youngster who is looked after well. This is not the case though as William writes: And because I am happy and dance and sing, They think they have done me no injury, And are gone to Praise God and his Priest and King, Who make up a heaven of our misery. The child is extremely depressed yet it seems no one can see it. He puts on a front to please people but deep down he has been hurt by everyone around him; his parents and God. He has been caused injury and pain and does not see the point in life. He makes himself look happy when in fact inside he is dead already. He has turned his back on God as he feels God has deserted him. He wants to know how the almighty God can bring such pain and hurt to such a young boy who has looked to him for help. God is meant to be there for help and advice, what God can make a child feel so depressed and sad that he feels on the inside he is dead already? He sees heaven as a place of miserable people, not happy but sad. Heaven was what The Chimney Sweeper (Songs of Innocence) was mostly about and how he was looking forward to seeing God and going to Heaven with the angels. However in Songs of Experience he has totally changed his view on life and his perspective of God and the afterlife. He sees no poi nt in living at all-there is no hope in this poem. Just the darkness of a young child. I think this is how William Blake felt about life, after the fall of the church, how it seemed spirits were blackened by politicians and the way society changed for the worse. William is Tom and Tom is William. William used to believe in God and once looked up to him, but when William saw what was happening to society, he wondered what God would allow such bad and harsh things to happen. God is meant to be all good, no evil, but William wants to know how God can allow such terror and pain. No one is happy anymore. Why would God make everyone sad and full of woe? William wants the answers but he cannot find them so he decides the only option is to desert God like he believes God has deserted him. The Chimney Sweeper (Songs of Innocence) has a lot more hope than The Chimney Sweeper (Songs of Experience) and talks of angels and Heaven as being a good place where no one is sad. William writes about God becoming Toms father if he does his duties. There is hope for Tom at the end of the poem and gives a good outlook on Toms life. However, The Chimney Sweeper (Songs of Experience) brings a completely different perspective of life and overshadows the innocence. All hope is gone and the sadness and woe is back. God has deserted them, so why should they carry on believing in him when he only seems to be hurting them more? The Chimney Sweeper (songs of Innocence) has been written in the view of a young child who is new to the world. He has been taught to believe that God is pure and innocent and will look after him. That is how the people of society have brought up their children and want them to remain hopeful. Yet The Chimney Sweeper (Songs of Experience) has been written by a more experienced person and shows how all these hopes and dreams have been fake and are not going to happen. The reality is how can there be a God if there are so many people in pain? You get two very different sides with these two poems and two very different comparisons on someone who once had hope who know has no hope. Comparing The Chimney Sweeper (Songs of Innocence) with The Chimney Sweeper (Songs of Experience) The Chimney Sweeper (Songs of Innocence) is almost like a much lighter version of The Chimney Sweeper (Songs of Experience). In Songs of Innocence, The boy who is focused on is called Tom and in the second version in Songs of Experience, the boy is unnamed, its as if he has lost his identity as he has grown up. In Songs of Innocence, Tom seems to be new to the world and unknown. He is fresh and is curious about the world; however he is thrown in to a job he does not like and shown the miseries it can cause. Even though this poem shows the downside and trauma it can cause to a child; it also brings hope. Even when Tom is down it talks of angels letting all the children in despair free and fulfilling their dreams. Compared to The Chimney Sweeper (Songs of Experience) it does not really contain any hope or joy. It talks of sad and dark images; there are no dreams and there is no optimism. This shows the comparison as although it is sad, it does bring a little bit of hope to Tom, as he i s young he has dreams that it will be better as time goes on. However it seems Songs of Experience focuses on the dark side of life basically portraying the image of insecurity and misery. Songs of Experience talks of churches and people going to pray making the reader thing happy thoughts but what Blake is really trying to say is that god is not all what he seems. If God was so great, why are people in poverty? Why are people dieing and put in these situations? He used to believe that God was there but as hes grown up hes realised that God has not helped him and as time has gone on he has lost his faith. This perhaps reflects William Blakes view on how on he was opposed to the monarchy and the church. These two poems in comparison show William Blakes faith in God beginning and ending. It shows his journey of why he has to come to the point where he no longer feels God is important and will support him. This is a sad journey and he has used a character called Tom; who I think represents William Blake as a child to portray this. He want it to be known how he feels but I think for some unknown reason he uses Tom instead of the word I because he wishes to be unknown, religion has seriously affected him and in extreme words damages him. He wants people to realise and understand what he has been through yet he cannot bring himself to be direct as in those days, the monarchy and church had extreme effects on society. To speak out against it would almost be a sin itself. William Blake also uses the words I was in The Chimney Sweeper (Songs of Experience) as if it is something he used to be, used to believe in. He is writing about the past and he wishes it to remain the past, whereas The Chimney Sweeper (Songs of Innocence) talks of the present and the hopes for the future so there is a comparison in tenses. The Chimney Sweeper (Songs of Experience) is also a lot shorter than Songs of Innocence. There are only three stanzas where as Songs of Innocence has six. This perhaps shows that as William Blake has lost his faith in God, he has also lost the words to describe this. There is nothing left for him to write about God and he shows this by only writing three verses. The Lamb The Lamb is a sweet and innocent poem that portrays the image of the world being beautiful and pure. It is all very sweet and touching. William writes about a lamb; who is an image of happiness and feeling content. The Lamb is good and brings no evil. William is saying that God can and has the ability to make beautiful creatures. The Lamb I think symbolizes the young and the less experienced as everything seems perfect and nothing can go wrong. William sees the Lamb as an Angel of God and I think this is how he saw God when he was young. He saw God as a wonderful and pure thing that he could always rely on. This is the image portrayed to children. William talks of Gods blessing. He asks the question Dost thou know who made thee? and at the end of the poem he answers the question by saying Little Lamb God bless thee. Meaning God made the Lamb so perfect. The Tiger The Tiger is almost a complete opposite to The Lamb. It raises profound questions but does not finally answer them unlike the Lamb. As in the Lamb it was showing the purity and innocence, yet the Tiger seems to show the hatred and terror of God. It shows the way that life can start so simply everything being perfect, but then turn sour when you least expect it. In the first stanza William writes about an evil tiger that is feared by everyone. He writes that there is no creature or human that dare touch or go near the mighty tiger. God has created something evil that seems to have shocked William. God created the beautiful lamb with its innocence and purity yet God has created something so evil and devilish. So unlike him. William is trying to say that life seems so perfect at first with everything going right, well you think it is going well because you dont know better because you are not experienced, but as you become more experienced you recognise that everything that seemed good wasnt. It is like you have been fooled for most of your life believing in something that is not what it seems in Williams case God. In the fifth stanza William writes: When the stars threw down their spears, And waterd heaven with their tears, Did he smile His work to see? Did he who made the lamb make thee? William is writing that he feels God felt the need to balance the beautiful and innocent creatures with evil creatures. You need the balance of good and evil for the world to go round but do you need this much evil? This much hurt and pain? William wants to know whether the person who made such a sweet and wonderful creature could make such an evil horrible creature. Life cannot just be a sweet lovely experience; you need to have scary experiences to balance it out. Life cannot be too nice so some evil is needed but it depends how much. Comparing The Lamb and The Tiger: The Tiger and The Lamb are the same but opposites. Opposites attract and together the Lamb and the Tiger make life. For nature to have harmony, there has to be a natural balance. William is showing the Tiger represents all the things the lamb is not, and the Lamb represents all the things the Tiger isnt. William feels betrayed, he has studied a faith for most of his life that he believed in, but he feels he has been proved wrong. God isnt evil but thats all William can see in front of him. He feels he has been fooled all of his life until he became more experienced and started thinking for himself to work out life isnt all lovey dovey. The Lamb talks of the purity and sweetness of God hence the Lamb, but in the Tiger, William has come to his own conclusion that God has created evil when he is not supposed to do so. He feels God has taken away his innocence so he will take away his belief from God. The comparison between The Lamb and The Tiger cannot be more apparent. They are totally different animals that portray different images to the world. William Blake knew this and just knowing the titles of the poems gives you an idea of the differences. William Blake I think wanted the differences to be obvious to others so they can really understand how he has lost his faith and why. The Lamb contains two stanzas which are quite long but happy. It is set out as if it is a nursery rhyme and should be spoken joyfully. You do not even have to read it to recgonise this yet in The Tiger there are six stanzas set out like text in a book. It looks a bit duller compared to The Lamb and is definitely not set out as a nursery rhyme. There are a lot more descriptive words than in The Lamb as The Lamb contains more simple rhyming words which are easy to say, making the poem flow with ease possible portraying the easy side of life. The Tiger in comparison is showing the hard side of life and how not everything is what it seems. The Lamb seems to be welcomed with open arms yet The Tiger seems to be feared. This poem shows how God created evil compared to the pure, innocent Lamb God also made. The question William Blake wants to know is what God can create evilif he is meant to be all good? It is like people have been fooled and he is the only one that recognises this. The symmetry of the two animals is shown as a love and hate relationship between God. The Tiger poem is longer and more meaningful than The Lamb poem and I think this is because William Blake wants to express what he has seen and learnt whilst growing up; it is an experienced piece of writing and much longer as he has more to comment on. The Lamb represents the youth and how when young you are oblivious to the world and its meaning yet as you grow up it becomes noticeable and there are a lot of things you find out which are expressed in The Tiger. Comparing The Chimney Sweeper with The Lamb The Tiger The Chimney sweeper shows how a little boy (Tom) views the world and his society. He talks of hope and happy things until he realises as he becomes more experienced that life isnt how it seems. You see the poem in the eyes of a chimney sweeper who is doing a dangerous job and who does not understand society. This chimney sweeper once looked to God for hope until he realised that there wasnt any. When he realised this he turned his back on God and lost the will to live. In the Lamb and the Tiger, William writes about a beautiful creature that has been created so perfect and sweet but then he talks of the evil tiger who is feared by most. This shows how once he thought life was like the Lamb, full of love and innocence yet as he became older he comes to terms with the fact God created both good and evil and he cant accept this. To him for most of his life, God was great. Nothing could harm him if God was there but to him this was all fake. This was not the reality he was in. Both poems are focused around society and God. They both result in William coming to terms that all is not what it seemed. Tom is William Blake when he was younger and is open about his feelings and his religion. The Lamb and the Tiger symbolise William when he is older and how he feels. How society has affected his religion dramatically. I think it is sad that William seems to have lost all belief in the one thing that kept him sane for a while. William Blake wants a God that is pure and innocent, not a touch of evil. Evil is not God, evil is for the devil. William couldnt have what he wanted as he saw a God that creates good and bad and didnt see the point in it so he turned his back on religion and I think all these poems really clearly show this and how perhaps political decisions caused a backlash to him.

The Discovery and Colonisation of America

The Discovery and Colonisation of America In 1492, America was discovered by Christopher Columbus. It had, however, already accidentally been discovered by Scandinavian Vikings about 500 years earlier. The Vikings were not alone when they discovered America. It was an unknown fact that Native Americans had come to America and inhabited it much earlier. Because this wasnt acknowledged, the Native Americans were never seen as the original discoverers. In 986, Bjarni Herjolffson set out from Norway in an attempt to reach Iceland and eventually Greenland. Greenland was the land Bjarnis father, also an adventurist, had failed to completely colonize on his fleet, led by Erik the Red. Bjarni got lost on the way to Greenland because of fog and storms. Eventually, he did find the land he was searching for. Bjarni did not discover America, but he was the first to make it out while he was at sea. Back in Norway, one of Erik the Reds sons, Leiff, became interested in the story Bjarni told. He decided he wanted to continue the adventure and find out which land Bjarni had seen on the horizon. In search of the best landscape to land on, Leif Eriksson and his crew sailed along the eastern coast of America. After passing the Baffin Island and what is now Labrador, they picked the best environment. They named it The Wineland. Leiff Erikssons crew inhabited the area, where they found grapevines and other products to bring home. They built houses, stayed for the winter and returned home with wine and food. The Discovery of America: The Spanish and Portuguese The first explorations and conquests were made by the Spanish and the Portuguese. In 1492, a Spanish expedition lead by Christopher Columbus sailed to the continent America and introduced the New World to the Western World of that time. He began studying the civilizations that he had encountered : the friendly Native Americans. After this, European conquest, exploration, and Colonisation quickly followed and expanded. After the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, approved of by the Pope, Spain and Portugal divided the entire non-European world between themselves, with a line drawn through South America. This first occurred along the Caribbean coasts on the islands of Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Cuba, and beginning in the early 16th century, extended into both North and South America. In 1498, Columbuss third trip reached the South American coast. With help from their powerful Indian allies, the Spanish rapidly conquered territory. As a result, they gained control of much of western South America, Central America and Mexico by the mid-16th century. Over this same period, Portugal colonized much of eastern South America, which is now Brazil. The Colonisation of America During the early and mid-sixteenth century, the English tended to view North America as a base for piracy and harassment of the Spanish(In the late 1560s a rebellious act broke out in the Netherlands, and the rebels were Protestant. British Queen Elizabeth aided these rebels. Spain, being Catholic, saw these rebels as a threat. Because of the fact that the British helped the Dutch Protestants, Spain became resentful towards England). By the end of the century, the English began to think more about North America as a place to colonize: as a market for English goods and a source of raw materials. The English claimed that New World Colonisation offered England many advantages. Not only would it enrage Catholic Spain, it would supply England with raw materials and provide a market for finished products. America would also provide a place to send the English poor. America also satisfied more personal needs : rigorously religious English felt that they were not accepted in England, and Ame rica would create a more liberal environment. Spain and England were hostile towards eachother over trade and colonisation. On August 8th, 1588, the English defeated Spain in the Spanish Armada. England was now able to colonize North America. English Joint Stock companies founded Jamestown in 1607. They failed because they were looking for gold, didnt farm, and drank contaminated water. They came during spring, which was deceiving. They didnt plan for winter. Many died the first winter. John Smith, who had been to America in the winter before, saved them. He said, Work or Starve. So, they started farming, and everybody was fed. The English Joint Stock company sent over 50 women to help repopulate Jamestown. The Pilgrims werent called Pilgrims until 150 years later. These strictly religious immigrants called themselves Saints. The Saints left England because they were not accepted for their religion. They went to the Netherlands, but they didnt want their children growing up being non-Englishmen. For this reason, they came to the New World. Early other European Colonisations in North America included the French colonies of Acadia and Canada, the Swedish colony of New Sweden, and the Dutch New Netherland. Also Sweden participated in occupying North America. As the colonies started to grow, Britain decided on the policy of salutary neglect : the British American colonies were to be obedient towards Great Britain. Conflicts between Britain and America The Seven Years War resulted in the decisive turning point in British-colonial relations. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 criticized Britains control of the seas and trade, as well as its sovereignty over much of the North American continent. To fund this war, Britain, unable to borrow any more money from other countries, raised its taxes. This had a very heavy effect on the citizens. Also, bureaucracy arose in England in order for the government to get all the money they could. Britain found it North Americas responsibility to aid them in their war expenses. However, New world institutions of self-government and trade, used to the policy of salutary neglect, refused and rebelled against this demand. The war developed and Britain became more dependant on North America : Military supplies and an increased demand for goods contributed to the wealth of the North American Colonies. The 7 years war had put Britain into great debt, so the Parliament insisted on a raise of taxes once again. The British government believed the colonies should pay their fair share to the nations expenses. Because the colonies were not represented in the Parliament, the North Americans found the raised taxes intolerable. The orthodox British view, dating from the Glorious Revolution of 1688, was that Parliament was the highest authority in the empire, and so anything Parliament did was constitutional. In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certain fundamental rights that not even Parliament could violate. The American Independence The concept of American Independence began when many more colonists began to reject the authority of the Parliament, since they werent represented, but were expected to pay taxes. They believed this violated their rights as Englishmen. The colonies petitioned King George III for intervention with the Parliament. To force him to do so, they boycotted British goods but kept their loyalty to the British crown. These acts were ignored. The colonists proceeded to create an army. Following acts to achieve the same goal were seen as rebellion and treachery. In 1776 the Colonies responded by declaring their independence Frances government secretly provided supplies to the revolutionaries. France eventually entered the war in 1778 along with the Spanish and Dutch. They treatened to invade Great Britain and put the English army, which wasnt so strong, to the test. Due to Great Britains naval power, it was able to occupy coastal cities in America. The more rural areas, where most of the population lived however, were less easy to control. The French involvement proved to be beneficial when the French naval victory at Yorktown in 1781 to the surrender of a British army occurred. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris ended the war and recognized the sovereignty of the United States. http://news. softpedia. com/news/How-Did-Vikings-Discover-America-49891. shtml http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/European_Colonisation_of_the_Americas http://www. digitalhistory. uh. edu/database/article_display. cfm?HHID=670 http://mr_sedivy. tripod. com/america. html http://www. taxanalysts. com/museum/1756-1776. htm http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Salutary_neglect http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War

Sexual Identity in Africa Essay -- Sexual Issues

A passionate subject, a cultural and universal practice, a part of the human nature and a divine attribute bestowed upon man by his creator. No culture is superior to another when it comes to sexuality, its acts is everywhere. It doesn’t change the face of any culture or change modernity from moving forward. Sexuality, sexual harassments, sexual dimorphism, sexual orientation, sexual intercourse, gays, lesbians, sexual preferences, sexual rights, sexual selection, sex appeal, being sexy, an endless list of each phrase, briefly coming with one source word; Sex. Sex has been a necessity, even though it is hardly ever discussed. In time past, in every part of the globe, there has always been a universal acknowledgements of the act â€Å"SEX†. Socially, it is an act a man and woman (wife/wives) engaged in after fulfilling the appropriate marriage rites. Politically, in ancient history and in present times, it was and still is the ultimate weapon of seduction that gave/gives most of our prominent women power over their male opponents. Over the years, sexual activities have grown to affect our lifestyles and perspectives (life views) to a great extend. In distinct parts of the world, the concept of sexual expressions and identities took diverse forms. The forms cut across beliefs, religions, perceptions, moral standard and even politics. However, certain things were settled for. According to N.M Heckel, in medieval times, â€Å"Sex was measured, as it is now, to be a normal and natural part of life. Most authorities agreed that it was not intrinsically sinful because God would not have made such a necessary activity to be a taboo (without sex one cannot have children and fulfil the commandment to "increase and multiply, and repleni... ...tisfree/cifamerica/2011/nov/02/america-problem-sex-education> Hoeksema, S. Inclusive Sex Education Needed in African Schools. 11th Nov 2011, 24th April 2012. Web. Heckel, N. Sex Society and Medeival Women. 24th April 2012. Web. http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/medsex/text.htm Meston, C, Ahrold, T. Ehtnic, Gender and Acculturation influences on Sexual Behaviours. DOI 10.1007. 2008. Print. Mirrer, L. Women Jews and Muslims in the texts of Reconquest Castile. University of Michigan press. Michigan. 1996. Print. Neary, L. Homosexuality in Africa is Still a Taboo. 22nd February 2010. 26th April 2012. Web. AUN students. Personal Interview. 14-14th April 2012. Wikipedia. Premarital Sex. 24th April 2012. Web.

Benefits of a College Degree Essay

After high school, a choice that many students have to make is whether to go to college or not. There are many factors that go into one’s decision. There are pros and cons to going to college and also there are pros and cons for not going to college. But the decision that will give someone the better opportunity to have a more successful life is to go to college. The money that one will earn after getting a college degree will be more than the money a person will make without getting a college degree. As our society has continued to evolve, education has become the optimal route to professional success: pursuing a degree is the best way to receive training, to gain expertise in a given field, and even to guide you and help you make choices about your career (Value†¦). Money is one of the most important reasons that a person goes to college. On average, a person that has just a high-school diploma earns $30,400 per year while a person that gets a bachelor’s degree will earn on average $52,200 per year (Value†¦). A master’s degree on average will get a person a yearly salary of $62,300 (Value†¦). Based on the numbers, a formal education is an essential ingredient in today’s society. Going to college and getting four more years of schooling may not be the fun thing to do, but it is a wise choice to help lead one to a more successful life. Some people may say that even though that someone will earn more money by getting a college degree, the cost of college does not equal out the amount of money one will make. While the cost of college is expensive, the difference in money made from a college degree will be able to cover the cost of college over time. The average cost of college tuition plus expenses per year is between $20,000 and $35,000 (U. S. News Staff). Of course that is quite a bit of money that would go into paying for college, but even if a person cannot pay for it at the time or did not get a scholarship, someone could always get a student loan so they can pay for college in that way. While if a person chooses to not go to college, that person can get a full-time job that one may focus heavily on. Although a person in college can have a job, that person cannot work as much as someone who is not in college. At first this is a positive for not going to college because that would mean more money for the people not going to college. That is true but over years; the people with a college degree will end up with more money because of the higher annual salaries. The benefits of a college degree are not just for money, but also a college degree will also give a person more career options. A person with a college degree will have more career options than someone without a college degree because employers will see that one has a college degree and think that person knows what to do and can do the job well. Employers want the best person for the job and a college degree looks really good on a person’s resume (Ten Great†¦). In a survey that was casted to see what employers look for, those employers said that they wanted people that have dependability, reliability, a good attitude, the ability to read comfortably, the ability to think more consciously, computer skills, and the ability to communicate clearly whether it be spoken or in writing (Knowledge and†¦). Along the path of getting a college degree, one will also learn these skills and attributes. Not only does a college degree increase one’s chances of getting a job, but it can also get a person employer-paid health insurance and pension plans. That is great considering that the amount of employers that are offering health insurance and pension plans are going down. Also, if in the town or state that a person lives in hits a recession, if one has a college degree, then that person is more likely to keep their job. Plus, even if that person does get fired, that person will still be more likely to find a job somewhere else because of the college degree (Ten Great†¦). College is not just a place to get a degree, but it is also a place to make connections and lifelong friends. Making connections is creating relationships with those that are further along in their career. One’s professors will enjoy helping out their students because they would not be professors if they did not care about helping out others. In college, a person will meet many people from many different places. The people that someone is with can listen to people’s stories about their backgrounds, experiences, and cultures. This will be an advantage because meeting a diverse range of people will give one a broader view on the world and cultural understanding (The Benefits†¦). Being in college will help one learn more about themselves. While one is in college, a person will figure out more about their likes and dislikes (The Benefit†¦). College is a time when one is starting to prepare for a career that one will enjoy doing that job for the rest of their life. Hopefully a person in college will find a career that one will enjoy and also be able to perform that job well. The time spent in college will help one become more satisfied with their career choice later on in life. Of course, the obvious benefit of going to college is the education and the knowledge that one will learn. In whatever major that a person takes while in college, one will get a higher understanding of what the class is about. Having the knowledge in a certain area will make a person better at their job. The knowledge that one will gain in college will help that person doing what is needed to get done every day. Plus, with a college degree, one will not need as much training as someone who did not get a degree. The benefits of going to college outweigh the possible negatives of going to college. While there is a chance of someone being very successful in life with only a high school diploma, the odds are just better if one has a college degree. There are many benefits of going to college so that one can earn a college degree. One can get a higher annual salary than someone that does not go to college. Having a college degree with give a person more career choices and also improve their chances of being hired by an employer. One will learn the skills that employers are looking for like knowledge, dependability, computer skills, and much more. A person that goes to college will develop great friendships and make a real connection with people. While in college, one will learn more about themselves, find out more about oneself, and hopefully be able to realize their dreams. There is no correct way to live life, but when someone is trying to figure what path to take so that one can fulfill their dreams and be as happy as possible, the signs point that going to college and getting a college degree is the smarter choice. Works Cited Gill, Deanna. â€Å"Negative Effects of Not Exercising. † n. p. HubPages Inc. 22 Mar. 2011. Web. 3Nov. 2012. Wiley, Blackwell. â€Å"Regular Exercise Reduces Large Number of Health Risks Including Dementia and Some Cancers, Study Finds. † ScienceDaily, 16 Nov. 2010. Web. 3 Nov. 2012. CourseAdvisor. â€Å"Benefits of a College Degree. † Washington Post Company. CourseAdvisor Inc. 2010. Web. 6 Dec. 2012. â€Å"Knowledge and Skills Needed to Succeed in the 21st Century Workplace,† National Center for Higher Education Management Systems, June 2000. â€Å"Ten Great Reasons to Get a College Degree. † n. p. Yellow Page College Directory. 2011. Web. 6 Dec. 2012. â€Å"The Benefits of a College Degree. † n. p. Hobsons. Web. 6 Dec. 2012. â€Å"The Real Benefits of a College Degree. † n. p. RightFitDegrees. com, Inc. 2009-2012. Web. 7 Dec. 2012. U. S. News Staff. â€Å"The Average Cost of a U. S. College Education. † n. p. U. S. News & World Report. 24 Aug. 2010. Web. 6 Dec. 2012. â€Å"Value of Education. † n. p. 2003-2010. Web. 6 Dec. 2012.

Pete Rose Essays

Pete Rose Essays Pete Rose Essay Pete Rose Essay Kuruc 2 Pete Rose got his start as a major league baseball player during a Spring Training game in 1963 against the Chicago White Sox when a second baseman named Don Blasingame pulled his groin muscle, and Rose was put into the game as his replacement. Upon appearing in another spring training game against the New York Yankees, Pete was issued a walk and proceeded to sprint to first base instead of the usual slow trot down the baseline after a walk. Yankee player Whitey Ford gave him the nickname â€Å"Charlie Hustle†, almost mocking Rose upon seeing the play unfold. It is possible that the mocking tone of the name is the reason that Rose adopted the nickname and used it as a badge of honor throughout his playing career. Pete Rose finally made his Major League debut on opening day on April 8, 1963. Rose was held hitless for the first couple of games until April 13. Against the Pittsburgh Pirates and pitcher Bob Friend, Rose collected his first Major Le ague hit, a triple. Rose went on to log 4,256 hits in his illustrious playing career, retiring with the all-time hits record in the MLB, a mark that stands to this day. Personally I picked this topic because my father would always talk about Pete Rose when we talked about baseball since Rose had such great intensity and energy as well as his keen ability to get a hit whenever the team really needed it. He was also a key piece of the Philadelphia Phillies teams during his tenure with the team from 1979 until 1984. During Rose’s time with the Phillies he helped lead the team to three division titles and two World Series appearances including the 1980 season in which the Phillies captured the World Series in six games over the Kansas City Royals. My father not only grew up in Philadelphia but his father and my grandfather actually worked for the Phillies as a ticket taker. This link to the Phillies certainly enhanced my father’s love and passion for the 1980 team and Pete Rose especially Kuruc 3since he watched

Handling International Terrorism essays

Handling International Terrorism essays The September 11th attacks marked a clear escalation in quality of international terrorism. They have comprehensively changed the way in which we think about terrorism and react to it. The terrorist attacks proved that geographical separation from the area of operations no longer safeguards homeland security. It further reinforces the widely held assumption that international terrorism is the main threat to European security. Nowadays words and concepts such as culture of fear, civilization clash, rogue states, pre-emptive war, weapons of mass distraction, willing coalition and asymmetric war have become very common, even in informal speeches and in daily discussions with friends and family. International terrorism is a very wide problem that encapsulate a different and varied aspects. The type of terrorism causing most contemporary international concern is a very complex phenomenon. Its manifestations, such as a systematic use of violence and intimidation, are as many and various as its motivations. Its peculiarity is in its capacity to reinvent itself. It does not have flags or border. It would be a big mistake if we assumed that any group with an extreme ideology must be directed by al-Qaeda, or by one of its regional offshoots. Terrorists have surprised and shocked us - in terms of who has been targeted, when, how and on what scale. Terrorists simply do not always do what others expect them to do. There is a significant capacity for terrorists to do harm, and on a very large scale, and it should never be underestimated. Commuter transport systems remain immensely vulnerable in every major city in the world (i.e. the nerve agent Sarin, used in Tokyo underground attack); highly destructive conventional bombs can be made using the cheapest and most freely available mat ...

As far as comfort and design the center I attended has many positive findings to report

As far as comfort and design the center I attended has many positive findings to report. The entire center all was on one floor with appropriate temperatures through out the building. In the rooms there was child size tables, chairs, and play equipment. The children were always encouraged to clean up after play so that they could avoid tripping and other injuries in the room. I also noticed that children had their own cubby labeled with their name. The majority of the things I saw in the center revealed it was a safe and secure place for the children to learn. All cleaners, medicine, and the teachers belongings were located in a cabinet away from the childrens playing areas. In the play area all of the toys were checked before children began playing and were appropriate to their age group. In the room I observed in the teacher had prepared themes that worked in all of the centers. The day I visited they were focusing on pets so centers were set up so that it appealed to all of the multiple intelligences. I did not get a chance to witness a fire or storm drill but the teacher informed me that they did take place through out the year. Electrical cords were always tucked around and under the carpet so that they were not in childrens site. The ceilings, floors, and walls all looked safe. In the art area all the materials that were used were non-toxic and appropriate for their age group. Most of the containers were plastic with lids for toy and supply storage. Something that I was concerned about was the lack of coverings on the door hinges and joints. There was a reading area with flame resistant materials, such as big pillows, blankets, etc. There were no toy guns or balloons allowed in the room. At center I visited there were no stairs. There is a glass office by the entrance so that all visitors can be seen upon entrance.

Data Warehousing and data mining Research Paper

Data Warehousing and data mining - Research Paper Example Moreover, the increased data redundancy is further exacerbating the situation and the conversion of data into information, information into knowledge and knowledge in to power is very slow. This redundant and dubious information resource is of no good for managers who have to take quick decisions. Managers require precise information that represents and accounts for every aspect of a business. It is the responsibility of a decision support system to answer any query related to information stored in the system and to generate some nontrivial information patterns. These patterns can impart the required business intelligence and can leverage certain decisions. Data Warehouse There is no consensus on the definition of a data warehouse. In simplest terms, a data warehouse is a set of multiple applications, concepts, methodologies, tool and techniques to gain some knowledge based on historical data that may come from multiple systems and sources to assist managers in decision-making proces s. Vercellis (2009) defines â€Å"A data warehouse is the foremost repository for the data available for developing business intelligence architectures and decision support systems.† However, it is not a comprehensive definition and Vercellis (2009) himself admits, â€Å"The term data warehousing indicates the whole set of interrelated activities involved in designing, implementing and using a data warehouse.† Characteristics of a Data Warehouse There are few important characteristics of a data warehouse. These characteristics define the efficiency and effectiveness of the system and determine its qualification being a data warehouse. Most important characteristic of a data warehouse is the strength of its repository, which depends on the availability of sufficient historical and current data. The exact amount of historical and current data is determined by the domain where the data warehouse is being deployed. Secondly, a data warehouse has to provide ad-hoc access to information sources. This means there are only fewer fixed SQL queries and most of the inferences and intelligence is gathered through dynamic, on-the-fly queries. A data warehouse employs several tools like data modeling, star schema, data mining etc. to ensure ad-hoc access to its resources. Thirdly, a data warehouse is designed for decision makers and knowledge workers. However, these people are not bond to be information technology experts. Because strategic decisions are more concerned with customer trends, behaviors and market forces knowledge workers are not interested in individual records of a customer, product or service rather these users require an all inclusive big picture that may help to make long term strategic decisions and short term operational decisions. How it is different? A data warehouse is essentially different from Online Transaction Process (OLTP) and Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), Customer Resource Management (CRM) systems. Because these systems are not designed and engineered for decision-making and knowledge discovery, they do not have huge historical data. Secondly, they record live transactions of the business and keep records of customers, products and services updated. On the contrary, a data warehouse does not record live trans

Introduction to law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Introduction to law - Essay Example The provided case could be determined as the conduct of fraudulent activity. In relation to the aforementioned case, it can be affirmed that fraud is defined as an act of dishonesty, which is generally undertaken for acquiring certain personal benefits. Under the Fraud Act 2006, a person who founds to be guilty in performing any fraudulent activity is treated under subsection (2). This section of the law defines fraud under three situations i.e. ‘fraud by false representation’, ‘fraud by failing to disclose information’ and ‘fraud by abuse of position’ (Crown, 2006). With this concern, the provided case can be categorised falling into the situation of ‘fraud by false representation.’ It was the private individual i.e. Clark who made a false representation in terms of not disclosing the actual details of the clock and claiming it to be an antique of the 17th century. It can be obviously stated that the dishonest act of Clark dishonesty was intended not to disclose the truth for reaping personal benefits. Thu s, Section 2(3) of the Fraud Act 2006 can be applied in this provided case (Crown, 2006). After acquiring a preliminary understanding about the case provided, it can be affirmed that this case could be placed before the county court. Stewart can file a case in opposition to the fraudulent activity performed by Clark, as he intentionally did not disclosed the details of the good for his own personal gain. Stewart before filling the case must collect all the relevant documents against the defendant i.e. Clark, so that the defendant does not get a scope to strike out the case. The parties could even opt for pre-action claims through settling out the dispute without the intervention of the court. Sanctions regarding the settlement of the dispute could be gained through obtaining a monetary compensation from the party charged with the conduct of fraudulent

Critique of the Formal and Informal Piece in Architecture Research Paper

Critique of the Formal and Informal Piece in Architecture - Research Paper Example The purpose of the sorting is to divert the audiences’ attention from playing it as a game to considering the architecture in it. This challenges the status of the environment used in the game as a level since the buildings in the game have become the focus of attention. The architects have given opinions on the design as well as the kind of materials that have been used for the construction of buildings in the video games. Considering the purposefulness of the article, it can be doubted that the article does not serve the interest of the audience that the Journal is primarily meant for i.e. the architects. From the language used in the article, it can be estimated that it is meant for the students and professionals of Architecture alike. â€Å"Tetris can teach us all a lesson in dimensional co-ordination and rotational symmetry† (Patel, 2009). The context was not quite appropriate. If any such sorting was supposed to be carried out, students and professionals in the field of Architecture would have appreciated more if real buildings had been sorted rather than the ones in the video games. Although the study of architecture through video games is a cost-effective way of study, yet it is not quite meaningful as the intent of the developers of the video games was not architecture but fun. Critiquing something on a certain basis for which it was not originally meant is inappropriate. Nevertheless, i f this aspect is overlooked, the critique is quite professional in its content and language. The architects have been very rational in their identification of the drawbacks in architecture introduced in the games. e.g. â€Å"Pagoda roofs sit atop concrete-clad high-density housing towers as a nod to both ancient Eastern building practices and prefabricated modular buildings in the West† (Patel, 2009).  

'Government by oligarchy and corruption'. Is this a fair description Essay

'Government by oligarchy and corruption'. Is this a fair description of politics under Walpole - Essay Example After the retirement of Lord Townshend, he turned into the only undisputed leader of Cabinet. Although Walpole is charges with turning corruption into a public company with a systematic rottenness, it was under his reign when the country was able to manage the financial crisis in a systematic way. Walpole’s reign continued to 17421. First of all, let us concentrate on the issue of oligarchy and corruption that the political era of Walpole was charged with. Before proceeding further, it is necessary to look at what oligarchy actually refers to. Oligarchy can be described as a government which is governed only by a few. During the mid of seventeenth century, when the parliament won the contest for power with monarch, the lawyer-politicians were very much prominent in the political arena of Great Britain. It can therefore be said that at the start of eighteenth century there existed two great power blocks – politics and the law, and the interesting thing to be noted was that the cartel straddled both. During eighteenth century, England was being reined by the Whig oligarchs. The interesting feature of the government ran by Whig oligarchs was that they started to use the method of an all-encompassing corruption. To be more specific, the politicians used to buy their seats and sell their votes in parliament. The Whigs therefore introduced corruption in parliament, and Walpole, being a Whig, followed this tradition and took it forward to an intense level. Walpole’s era of Whig oligarchy ran from 1721 to 1742. It is found that during the last 10 years of his reign, he paid bribes of around 50,000 pound to newspaper proprietors. In this context, there is one thing worth mentioning. Although, parliamentary corruption took a very bad shape during the period of Walpole, it would not be right to say that corruption finds its origin in this period only. To trace the origin of corruption one needs to look far back. Parliamentary corruption

Samsung Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Samsung - Essay Example The headquarters of the company is situated in Seoul, South Korea and functions in over 100 countries across the globe. The Samsung group of companies is the largest conglomerate in the worldï€ ¬ in terms of revenues and the fact remains that â€Å"exports by Samsung Electronics Co., South Korea's most highly-valued firm, made up for 16.5 percent of the country's overseas shipments 2010† (Samsung Accounts for 16.5 Pct of S. Korean Exports in 2011, 2012). Samsung is renowned as one of the top growing international brands and functions in consumer electronics industry, consumer appliances as well as produces and sells a wide range of products including mobile phones, washing machines, televisionsï€ ¬ laptops etc. It becomes evident from this that the company gives top priority to the consumer electronics section. â€Å"In 2012, the brand value was worth USD 23.43 billion, which was a 20% increase from the previous year† (Global Harmony with People, Society & Environ ment, 2011). It is a fact that since the commencement of the business and up until the 1980sï€ ¬ Samsung was a follower not a leader. Samsung Electronics in Korea has transformed into a high-class business organization by shifting roles from an innovation follower to an innovation leader. In the late 1990s, Samsung opened a devoted â€Å"Value Innovation Program Centre† to recognize the core prospects to compete with its rivals. This is an incorporated five-floor facility? where value improvement is employed as a procedure and applied in numerous lines of products. 2.2 Internationalization Process Even though the organizational strategy of Samsung for the 90s revolves around consolidation, the strategy for its corporeal manufacturing facilities entails increasing progress offshore. The earliest abroad production efforts of Samsung were a Portuguese joint project operation set up in 1982, a United State subsidiary established in the year 1984 and also another established Mexican subsidia ry in 1988. They had proficiency in the production of color TV sets and several core constituents. In the late 1988? it also possessed twelve subsidiaries for sales outside Korea. 2.2.1 Samsung in UK In UK, Samsung intended to expand its smart phone delivery by trebling its product line, since it drops behind by its competitors like Apple and Nokia. â€Å"Although Nokia is market leader, but in case of smart phone Samsung emerged as leader† (Kaushik, 2012). Samsung holds only 3 per cent market share, against Nokia (35%) and Apple (17%).   UK Legislation like high levying for energy bill too encourages substitutes into the electronic industry which is a growing threat for the sector. â€Å"During London 2012, Samsung will also showcase its cutting-edge mobile technology at the Olympic Park and across major sites in the city to enrich the Olympic Games experience for spectators† (IOC marketing: Media Guide, 2012). 2.2.2 Samsung in Foreign Countries Subsequent to the

Malcolm X and Black Nationalism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Malcolm X and Black Nationalism - Essay Example Due to such mistreatment of blacks they became tired and needed a forum to express their challenges. This led to the formation of civil right movement that promoted equal education and legal rights. Despite the two being vocal in the Black Nationalism in USA, their views differed (Cone et al, 2003). MLK comes from a very affluent family and Malcolm X from a poor background, therefore the basis of argument are different in that MLX called for a Non –violent resistance for example the triumph of the Montgomery bus (1955) in Alabama whereas Malcolm X is viewed to be violent ‘By all means† Most blacks, like such as Malcolm X, MLK methods were useless and lacked basis. But, King continually emphasized in nonviolent approach. He refuses to inflict physical harm on others. According to Dr. King, he argues that nonviolence methods resist evil, and it refuses to commit evil. He continues by saying that the enemy is a person and must be treated fairly; one should not destroy the rival but rather seeks to make the foe a friend. Even if using violence fails to convert the foe to a friend; it removes hatred from the hearts of those who are committed to it.† Violence was very impractical and immoral (Waldschmidt, et, al, 2003) According to Malcolm X, he did not favor integrations of white and blacks; he even continues to warn the blacks of integrating with ‘sinking ship’. Therefore, he emphasized on black separatism and not integration. Dr. King advocated for unity and peaceful coexistence among individual of different races (Cone et al, 2003) . The different in ideas originate from the environment that one was bought in. King was brought up in a religious environment and their parents who loved unity. Unlike Malcolm X, the ideas originated from the racial hate that killed his father who influenced him in Black Nationalism activism. Moreover, he was subjected to white violence and racism, and this made him drop out of school

'Government by oligarchy and corruption'. Is this a fair description Essay

'Government by oligarchy and corruption'. Is this a fair description of politics under Walpole - Essay Example After the retirement of Lord Townshend, he turned into the only undisputed leader of Cabinet. Although Walpole is charges with turning corruption into a public company with a systematic rottenness, it was under his reign when the country was able to manage the financial crisis in a systematic way. Walpole’s reign continued to 17421. First of all, let us concentrate on the issue of oligarchy and corruption that the political era of Walpole was charged with. Before proceeding further, it is necessary to look at what oligarchy actually refers to. Oligarchy can be described as a government which is governed only by a few. During the mid of seventeenth century, when the parliament won the contest for power with monarch, the lawyer-politicians were very much prominent in the political arena of Great Britain. It can therefore be said that at the start of eighteenth century there existed two great power blocks – politics and the law, and the interesting thing to be noted was that the cartel straddled both. During eighteenth century, England was being reined by the Whig oligarchs. The interesting feature of the government ran by Whig oligarchs was that they started to use the method of an all-encompassing corruption. To be more specific, the politicians used to buy their seats and sell their votes in parliament. The Whigs therefore introduced corruption in parliament, and Walpole, being a Whig, followed this tradition and took it forward to an intense level. Walpole’s era of Whig oligarchy ran from 1721 to 1742. It is found that during the last 10 years of his reign, he paid bribes of around 50,000 pound to newspaper proprietors. In this context, there is one thing worth mentioning. Although, parliamentary corruption took a very bad shape during the period of Walpole, it would not be right to say that corruption finds its origin in this period only. To trace the origin of corruption one needs to look far back. Parliamentary corruption

Malcolm X and Black Nationalism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Malcolm X and Black Nationalism - Essay Example Due to such mistreatment of blacks they became tired and needed a forum to express their challenges. This led to the formation of civil right movement that promoted equal education and legal rights. Despite the two being vocal in the Black Nationalism in USA, their views differed (Cone et al, 2003). MLK comes from a very affluent family and Malcolm X from a poor background, therefore the basis of argument are different in that MLX called for a Non –violent resistance for example the triumph of the Montgomery bus (1955) in Alabama whereas Malcolm X is viewed to be violent ‘By all means† Most blacks, like such as Malcolm X, MLK methods were useless and lacked basis. But, King continually emphasized in nonviolent approach. He refuses to inflict physical harm on others. According to Dr. King, he argues that nonviolence methods resist evil, and it refuses to commit evil. He continues by saying that the enemy is a person and must be treated fairly; one should not destroy the rival but rather seeks to make the foe a friend. Even if using violence fails to convert the foe to a friend; it removes hatred from the hearts of those who are committed to it.† Violence was very impractical and immoral (Waldschmidt, et, al, 2003) According to Malcolm X, he did not favor integrations of white and blacks; he even continues to warn the blacks of integrating with ‘sinking ship’. Therefore, he emphasized on black separatism and not integration. Dr. King advocated for unity and peaceful coexistence among individual of different races (Cone et al, 2003) . The different in ideas originate from the environment that one was bought in. King was brought up in a religious environment and their parents who loved unity. Unlike Malcolm X, the ideas originated from the racial hate that killed his father who influenced him in Black Nationalism activism. Moreover, he was subjected to white violence and racism, and this made him drop out of school

African American Culture Essay Example for Free

African American Culture Essay African American culture in the United States includes the various cultural traditions of African ethnic groups. It is both part of and distinct from American culture. The U. S. Census Bureau defines African Americans as people having origins in any of the Black race groups of Africa. [1] African American culture is indigenous to the descendants in the U. S. of survivors of the Middle Passage. It is rooted in Africa and is an amalgam of chiefly sub-Saharan African and Sahelean cultures. Although slavery greatly restricted the ability of Africans in America to practice their cultural traditions, many practices, values and beliefs survived and over time have incorporated elements of European American culture. There are even certain facets of African American culture that were brought into being or made more prominent as a result of slavery; an example of this is how drumming became used as a means of communication and establishing a community identity during that time. The result is a dynamic, creative culture that has had and continues to have a profound impact on mainstream American culture and on world culture as well. After Emancipation, these uniquely African American traditions continued to grow. They developed into distinctive traditions in music, art, literature, religion, food, holidays, amongst others. While for some time sociologists, such as Gunnar Myrdal and Patrick Moynihan, believed that African Americans had lost most cultural ties with Africa, anthropological field research by Melville Hersovits and others demonstrated that there is a continuum of African traditions among Africans in the New World from the West Indies to the United States. The greatest influence of African cultural practices on European cultures is found below the Mason-Dixon in the southeastern United States, especially in the Carolinas among the Gullah people and in Louisiana. African American culture often developed separately from mainstream American culture because of African Americans desire to practice their own traditions, as well as the persistence of racial segregation in America. Consequently African American culture has become a significant part of American culture and yet, at the same time, remains a distinct culture apart from it. History From the earliest days of slavery, slave owners sought to exercise control over their slaves by attempting to strip them of their African culture. The physical isolation and societal marginalization of African slaves and, later, of their free progeny, however, actually facilitated the retention of significant elements of traditional culture among Africans in the New World generally, and in the U. S. in particular. Slave owners deliberately tried to repress political organization in order to deal with the many slave rebellions that took place in the southern United States, Brazil, Haiti, and the Dutch Guyanas. African cultures,slavery,slave rebellions,and the civil rights movements(circa 1800s-160s)have shaped African American religious, familial, political and economic behaviors. The imprint of Africa is evident in myriad ways, in politics, economics, language, music, hairstyles, fashion, dance, religion and worldview, and food preparation methods. In the United States, the very legislation that was designed to strip slaves of culture and deny them education served in many ways to strengthen it. In turn, African American culture has had a pervasive, transformative impact on myriad elements of mainstream American culture, among them language, music, dance, religion, cuisine, and agriculture. This process of mutual creative exchange is called creolization. Over time, the culture of African slaves and their descendants has been ubiquitous in its impact on not only the dominant American culture, but on world culture as well. Oral tradition Slaveholders limited or prohibited education of enslaved African Americans because they believed it might lead to revolts or escape plans. Hence, African-based oral traditions became the primary means of preserving history, morals, and other cultural information among the people. This was consistent with the griot practices of oral history in many African and other cultures that did not rely on the written word. Many of these cultural elements have been passed from generation to generation through storytelling. The folktales provided African Americans the opportunity to inspire and educate one another. Examples of African American folktales include trickster tales of Brer Rabbit and heroic tales such as that of John Henry. The Uncle Remus stories by Joel Chandler Harris helped to bring African American folk tales into mainstream adoption. Harris did not appreciate the complexity of the stories nor their potential for a lasting impact on society. Characteristics of the African American oral tradition present themselves in a number of forms. African American preachers tend to perform rather than simply speak. The emotion of the subject is carried through the speakers tone, volume, and movement, which tend to mirror the rising action, climax, and descending action of the sermon. Often song, dance, verse and structured pauses are placed throughout the sermon. Techniques such as call-and-response are used to bring the audience into the presentation. In direct contrast to recent tradition in other American and Western cultures, it is an acceptable and common audience reaction to interrupt and affirm the speaker. Spoken word is another example of how the African American oral tradition influences modern American popular culture. Spoken word artists employ the same techniques as African American preachers including movement, rhythm, and audience participation. Rap music from the 1980s and beyond has been seen as an extension of oral culture. Harlem Renaissance [pic] Zora Neale Hurston was a prominent literary figure during the Harlem Renaissance. Main article: Harlem Renaissance The first major public recognition of African American culture occurred during the Harlem Renaissance. In the 1920s and 1930s, African American music, literature, and art gained wide notice. Authors such as Zora Neale Hurston and Nella Larsen and poets such as Langston Hughes, Claude McKay, and Countee Cullen wrote works describing the African American experience. Jazz, swing, blues and other musical forms entered American popular music. African American artists such as William H. Johnson and Palmer Hayden created unique works of art featuring African Americans. The Harlem Renaissance was also a time of increased political involvement for African Americans. Among the notable African American political movements founded in the early 20th century are the United Negro Improvement Association and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. The Nation of Islam, a notable Islamic religious movement, also began in the early 1930s. African American cultural movement The Black Power movement of the 1960s and 1970s followed in the wake of the non-violent American Civil Rights Movement. The movement promoted racial pride and ethnic cohesion in contrast to the focus on integration of the Civil Rights Movement, and adopted a more militant posture in the face of racism. It also inspired a new renaissance in African American literary and artistic expression generally referred to as the African American or Black Arts Movement. The works of popular recording artists such as Nina Simone (Young, Gifted and Black) and The Impressions (Keep On Pushin), as well as the poetry, fine arts and literature of the time, shaped and reflected the growing racial and political consciousness. Among the most prominent writers of the African American Arts Movement were poet Nikki Giovanni; poet and publisher Don L. Lee, who later became known as Haki Madhubuti; poet and playwright Leroi Jones, later known as Amiri Baraka; and Sonia Sanchez. Other influential writers were Ed Bullins, Dudley Randall, Mari Evans, June Jordan, Larry Neal and Ahmos Zu-Bolton. Another major aspect of the African American Arts Movement was the infusion of the African aesthetic, a return to a collective cultural sensibility and ethnic pride that was much in evidence during the Harlem Renaissance and in the celebration of Negritude among the artistic and literary circles in the U. S. , Caribbean and the African continent nearly four decades earlier: the idea that black is beautiful. During this time, there was a resurgence of interest in, and an embrace of, elements of African culture within African American culture that had been suppressed or devalued to conform to Eurocentric America. Natural hairstyles, such as the afro, and African clothing, such as the dashiki, gained popularity. More importantly, the African American aesthetic encouraged personal pride and political awareness among African Americans. Music [pic] Men playing the djembe, a traditional West African drum adopted into African American and American culture. The bags and the clothing of the man on the right are printed with traditional kente cloth patterns. African American music is rooted in the typically polyrhythmic music of the ethnic groups of Africa, specifically those in the Western, Sahelean, and Sub-Saharan regions. African oral traditions, nurtured in slavery, encouraged the use of music to pass on history, teach lessons, ease suffering, and relay messages. The African pedigree of African American music is evident in some common elements: call and response, syncopation, percussion, improvisation, swung notes, blue notes, the use of falsetto, melisma, and complex multi-part harmony. During slavery, Africans in America blended traditional European hymns with African elements to create spirituals. Many African Americans sing Lift Evry Voice and Sing in addition to the American national anthem, The Star-Spangled Banner, or in lieu of it. Written by James Weldon Johnson and John Rosamond Johnson in 1900 to be performed for the birthday of Abraham Lincoln, the song was, and continues to be, a popular way for African Americans to recall past struggles and express ethnic solidarity, faith and hope for the future. The song was adopted as the Negro National Anthem by the NAACP in 1919. African American children are taught the song at school, church or by their families. Lift Evry Voice and Sing traditionally is sung immediately following, or instead of, The Star-Spangled Banner at events hosted by African American churches, schools, and other organizations. In the 1800s, as the result of the blackface minstrel show, African American music entered mainstream American society. By the early twentieth century, several musical forms with origins in the African American community had transformed American popular music. Aided by the technological innovations of radio and phonograph records, ragtime, jazz, blues, and swing also became popular overseas, and the 1920s became known as the Jazz Age. The early 20th century also saw the creation of the first African American Broadway shows, films such as King Vidors Hallelujah!, and operas such as George Gershwins Porgy and Bess. Rock and roll, doo wop, soul, and RB developed in the mid 20th century. These genres became very popular in white audiences and were influences for other genres such as surf. The dozens, an urban African American tradition of using rhyming slang to put down your enemies (or friends) developed through the smart-ass street jive of the early Seventies into a new form of music. In the South Bronx, the half speaking, half singing rhythmic street talk of rapping grew into the hugely successful cultural force known as Hip Hop. Hip Hop would become a multicultural movement. However, it is still important to many African Americans. The African American Cultural Movement of the 1960s and 1970s also fueled the growth of funk and later hip-hop forms such as rap, hip house, new jack swing and go go. African American music has experienced far more widespread acceptance in American popular music in the 21st century than ever before. In addition to continuing to develop newer musical forms, modern artists have also started a rebirth of older genres in the form of genres such as neo soul and modern funk-inspired groups. Dance [pic] The Cakewalk was the first African American dance to gain widespread popularity in the United States. [pic] African American dance, like other aspects of African American culture, finds its earliest roots in the dances of the hundreds of African ethnic groups that made up African slaves in the Americas as well as influences from European sources in the United States. Dance in the African tradition, and thus in the tradition of slaves, was a part of both every day life and special occasions. Many of these traditions such as get down, ring shouts, and other elements of African body language survive as elements of modern dance. In the 1800s, African American dance began to appear in minstrel shows. These shows often presented African Americans as caricatures for ridicule to large audiences. The first African American dance to become popular with White dancers was the cakewalk in 1891. Later dances to follow in this tradition include the Charleston, the Lindy Hop, and the Jitterbug. During the Harlem Renaissance, all African American Broadway shows such as Shuffle Along helped to establish and legitimize African American dancers. African American dance forms such as tap, a combination of African and European influences, gained widespread popularity thanks to dancers such as Bill Robinson and were used by leading White choreographers who often hired African American dancers. Contemporary African American dance is descended from these earlier forms and also draws influence from African and Caribbean dance forms. Groups such as the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater have continued to contribute to the growth of this form. Modern popular dance in America is also greatly influenced by African American dance. American popular dance has also drawn many influences from African American dance most notably in the hip hop genre. Art [pic] Sand Dunes at Sunset, Atlantic City by Henry Ossawa Tanner 1859-1937 From its early origins in slave communities, through the end of the twentieth century, African-American art has made a vital contribution to the art of the United States. During the period between the 1600s and the early 1800s, art took the form of small drums, quilts, wrought-iron figures and ceramic vessels in the southern United States. These artifacts have similarities with comparable crafts in West and Central Africa. In contrast, African American artisans like the New England–based engraver Scipio Moorhead and the Baltimore portrait painter Joshua Johnson created art that was conceived in a thoroughly western European fashion. During the 1800s, Harriet Powers made quilts in rural Georgia, United States that are now considered among the finest examples of nineteenth-century Southern quilting. Later in the 20th century, the women of Gee’s Bend developed a distinctive, bold, and sophisticated quilting style based on traditional African American quilts with a geometric simplicity that developed separately but was like that of Amish quilts and modern art. After the American Civil War, museums and galleries began more frequently to display the work of African American artists. Cultural expression in mainstream venues was still limited by the dominant European aesthetic and by racial prejudice. To increase the visibility of their work, many African American artists traveled to Europe where they had greater freedom. It was not until the Harlem Renaissance that more whites began to pay attention to African American art in America. [pic] Kara Walker, Cut, Cut paper and adhesive on wall, Brent Sikkema NYC. During the 1920s, artists such as Raymond Barthe, Aaron Douglas, Augusta Savage, and photographer James Van Der Zee became well known for their work. During the Great Depression, new opportunities arose for these and other African American artists under the WPA. In later years, other programs and institutions, such as the New York City-based Harmon Foundation, helped to foster African American artistic talent. Augusta Savage, Elizabeth Catlett, Lois Mailou Jones, Romare Bearden, Jacob Lawrence and others exhibited in museums and juried art shows, and built reputations and followings for themselves. In the 1950s and 1960s, there were very few widely accepted African American artists. Despite this, The Highwaymen, a loose association of 27 African American artists from Ft. Pierce, Florida, created idyllic, quickly realized images of the Florida landscape and peddled some 50,000 of them from the trunks of their cars. They sold their art directly to the public rather than through galleries and art agents, thus receiving the name The Highwaymen. Rediscovered in the mid-1990s, today they are recognized as an important part of American folk history. Their artwork is widely collected by enthusiasts and original pieces can easily fetch thousands of dollars in auctions and sales. The Black Arts Movement of the 1960s and 1970s was another period of resurgent interest in African American art. During this period, several African-American artists gained national prominence, among them Lou Stovall, Ed Love, Charles White, and Jeff Donaldson. Donaldson and a group of African-American artists formed the Afrocentric collective AFRICOBRA, which remains in existence today. The sculptor Martin Puryear, whose work has been acclaimed for years, is being honored with a 30-year retrospective of his work at the Museum of Modern Art in New York starting November 2007. Notable contemporary African American artists include David Hammons, Eugene J. Martin, Charles Tolliver, and Kara Walker. Literature [pic] Langston Hughes, a notable African American poet of the Harlem Renaissance. African American literature has its roots in the oral traditions of African slaves in America. The slaves used stories and fables in much the same way as they used music. These stories influenced the earliest African American writers and poets in the 18thcentury such as Phillis Wheatley and Olaudah Equiano. These authors reached early high points by telling slave narratives. During the early 20th century Harlem Renaissance, numerous authors and poets, such as Langston Hughes, W. E. B. Dubois, and Booker T. Washington, grappled with how to respond to discrimination in America. Authors during the Civil Rights era, such as Richard Wright, James Baldwin and Gwendolyn Brooks wrote about issues of racial segregation, oppression and other aspects of African American life. This tradition continues today with authors who have been accepted as an integral part of American literature, with works such as Roots: The Saga of an American Family by Alex Haley, The Color Purple by Alice Walker, and Beloved by Nobel Prize-winning Toni Morrison, and series by Octavia Butler and Walter Mosley that have achieved both best-selling and/or award-winning status. Museums The African American Museum Movement emerged during the 1950s and 1960s to preserve the heritage of the African American experience and to ensure its proper interpretation in American history. Museums devoted to African American history are found in many African American neighborhoods. Institutions such as the African American Museum and Library at Oakland and The African American Museum in Cleveland were created by African Americans to teach and investigate cultural history that, until recent decades was primarily preserved trough oral traditions. Language Generations of hardships imposed on the African American community created distinctive language patterns. Slave owners often intentionally mixed people who spoke different African languages to discourage communication in any language other than English. This, combined with prohibitions against education, led to the development of pidgins, simplified mixtures of two or more languages that speakers of different languages could use to communicate. Examples of pidgins that became fully developed languages include Creole, common to Haiti,and Gullah, common to the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina and Georgia. African American Vernacular English is a type variety (dialect, ethnolect and sociolect) of the American English language closely associated with the speech of but not exclusive to African Americans. While AAVE is academically considered a legitimate dialect because of its logical structure, some of both Caucasians and African Americans consider it slang or the result of a poor command of Standard American English. Inner city African American children who are isolated by speaking only AAVE have more difficulty with standardized testing and, after school, moving to the mainstream world for work. It is common for many speakers of AAVE to code switch between AAVE and Standard American English depending on the setting. Fashion and aesthetics [pic]. A man weaving kente cloth in Ghana. Attire The cultural explosion of the 1960s saw the incorporation of surviving cultural dress with elements from modern fashion and West African traditional clothing to create a uniquely African American traditional style. Kente cloth is the best known African textile. These festive woven patterns, which exist in numerous varieties, were originally made by the Ashanti and Ewe peoples of Ghana and Togo. Kente fabric also appears in a number of Western style fashions ranging from casual t-shirts to formal bow ties and cummerbunds. Kente strips are often sewn into liturgical and academic robes or worn as stoles. Since the Black Arts Movement, traditional African clothing has been popular amongst African Americans for both formal and informal occasions. Another common aspect of fashion in African American culture involves the appropriate dress for worship in the Black church. It is expected in most churches that an individual should present their best appearance for worship. African American women in particular are known for wearing vibrant dresses and suits. An interpretation of a passage from the Christian Bible, every woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her head , has led to the tradition of wearing elaborate Sunday hats, sometimes known as crowns. Hair Hair styling in African American culture is greatly varied. African American hair is typically composed of tightly coiled curls. The predominant styles for women involve the straightening of the hair through the application of heat or chemical processes. These treatments form the base for the most commonly socially acceptable hairstyles in the United States. Alternatively, the predominant and most socially acceptable practice for men is to leave ones hair natural. Often, as men age and begin to lose their hair, the hair is either closely cropped, or the head is shaved completely free of hair. However, since the 1960s, natural hairstyles, such as the afro, braids, and dreadlocks, have been growing in popularity. Although the association with radical political movements and their vast difference from mainstream Western hairstyles, the styles have not yet attained widespread social acceptance. Maintaining facial hair is more prevalent among African American men than in other male populations in the U. S. In fact, the soul patch is so named because African American men, particularly jazz musicians, popularized the style. The preference for facial hair among African American men is due partly to personal taste, but because they are more prone than other ethnic groups to develop a condition known as pseudofolliculitis barbae, commonly referred to as razor bumps, many prefer not to shave. Body image The European aesthetic and attendant mainstream concepts of beauty are often at odds with the African body form. Because of this, African American women often find themselves under pressure to conform to European standards of beauty. Still, there are individuals and groups who are working towards raising the standing of the African aesthetic among African Americans and internationally as well. This includes efforts toward promoting as models those with clearly defined African features; the mainstreaming of natural hairstyles; and, in women, fuller, more voluptuous body types. Religion While African Americans practice a number of religions, Protestant Christianity is by far the most popular. Additionally, 14% of Muslims in the United States and Canada are African American. Christianity [pic] A river baptism in New Bern, North Carolina near the turn of the 20th century. The religious institutions of African American Christians commonly are referred tocollectively as the black church. During slavery, many slaves were stripped of their African belief systems and typically denied free religious practice. Slaves managed, however, to hang on to some practices by integrating them into Christian worship in secret meetings. These practices, including dance, shouts, African rhythms, and enthusiastic singing, remain a large part of worship in the African American church. African American churches taught that all people were equal in Gods eyes and viewed the doctrine of obedience to ones master taught in white churches as hypocritical. Instead the African American church focused on the message of equality and hopes for a better future. Before and after emancipation, racial segregation in America prompted the development of organized African American denominations. The first of these was the AME Church founded by Richard Allen in 1787. An African American church is not necessarily a separate denomination. Several predominantly African American churches exist as members of predominantly white denominations. African American churches have served to provide African American people with leadership positions and opportunities to organize that were denied in mainstream American society. Because of this, African American pastors became the bridge between the African American and European American communities and thus played a crucial role in the American Civil Rights Movement. Like many Christians, African American Christians sometimes participate in or attend a Christmas play. Black Nativity by Langston Hughes is a re-telling of the classic Nativity story with gospel music. Productions can be found a African American theaters and churches all over the country. Islam [pic] A member of the Nation of Islam selling merchandise on a city street corner. Despite the popular assumption that the Nation represents all or most African American Muslims, less than 2% are members. Generations before the advent of the Atlantic slave trade, Islam was a thriving religion in West Africa due to its peaceful introduction via the lucrative trans-Saharan trade between prominent tribes in the southern Sahara and the Berbers to the North. In his attesting to this fact the West African scholar Cheikh Anta Diop explained: The primary reason for the success of Islam in Black Africa consequently stems from the fact that it was propagated peacefully at first by solitary Arabo-Berber travelers to certain Black kings and notables, who then spread it about them to those under their jurisdiction Many first-generation slaves were often able to retain their Muslim identity, their descendants were not. Slaves were either forcibly converted to Christianity as was the case in the Catholic lands or were besieged with gross inconviences to their religious practice such as in the case of the Protestant American mainland. In the decades after slavery and particularly during the depression era, Islam reemerged in the form of highly visible and sometimes controversial heterodox movements in the African American community. The first of these of note was the Moorish Science Temple of America, founded by Noble Drew Ali. Ali had a profound influence on Wallace Fard, who later founded the Black nationalist Nation of Islam in 1930. Elijah Muhammad became head of the organization in 1934. Much like Malcolm X, who left the Nation of Islam in 1964, many African American Muslims now follow traditional Islam. A survey by the Council on American-Islamic Relations shows that 30% of Sunni Mosque attendees are African Americans. African American orthodox Muslims are often the victims of stereotypes, most notably the assumption that an African American Muslim is a member of the Nation of Islam. They are often viewed by the uneducated African-American community in general as less authentic than Muslims from the Middle East or South Asia while credibility is less of an issue with immigrant Muslims and Muslim world in general. Other religions. Aside from Christianity and Islam, there are also African Americans who follow Judaism, Buddhism, and a number of other religions. The Black Hebrew Israelites are a collection of African American Jewish religious organizations. Among their varied teachings, they often include that African Americans are descended from the Biblical Hebrews (sometimes with the paradoxical claim that the Jewish people are not). There is a small but growing number of African Americans who participate in African traditional religions, such as Vodou and Santeria or Ifa and diasporic traditions like Rastafarianism. Many of them are immigrants or descendants of immigrants from the Caribbean and South America, where these are practiced. Because of religious practices, such as animal sacrifice, which are no longer common among American religions and are often legally prohibited, these groups may be viewed negatively and are sometimes the victims of harassment. Life events For most African Americans, the observance of life events follows the pattern of mainstream American culture. There are some traditions which are unique to African Americans. Some African Americans have created new rites of passage that are linked to African traditions. Pre-teen and teenage boys and girls take classes to prepare them for adulthood. They are typically taught spirituality, responsibility, and leadership. Most of these programs are modeled after traditional African ceremonies, with the focus largely on embracing African ideologies rather than specific rituals. To this day, some African American couples choose to jump the broom as a part of their wedding ceremony. Although the practice, which can be traced back to Ghana, fell out of favor in the African American community after the end of slavery, it has experienced a slight resurgence in recent years as some couples seek to reaffirm their African heritage. Funeral traditions tend to vary based on a number of factors, including religion and location, but there are a number of commonalities. Probably the most important part of death and dying in the African American culture is the gathering of family and friends. Either in the last days before death or shortly after death, typically any friends and family members that can be reached are notified. This gathering helps to provide spiritual and emotional support, as well as assistance in making decisions and accomplishing everyday tasks. The spirituality of death is very important in African American culture. A member of the clergy or members of the religious community, or both, are typically present with the family through the entire process. Death is often viewed as transitory rather than final. Many services are called homegoings, instead of funerals, based on the belief that the person is going home to the afterlife. The entire end of life process is generally treated as a celebration of life rather than a mourning of loss. This is most notably demonstrated in the New Orleans Jazz Funeral tradition where upbeat music, dancing, and food encourage those gathered to be happy and celebrate the homegoing of a beloved friend. Cuisine [pic] A traditional soul food dinner consisting of fried chicken, candied yams, collard greens, cornbread, and macaroni and cheese. The cultivation and use of many agricultural products in the United States, such as yams, peanuts, rice, okra, sorghum, grits, watermelon, indigo dyes, and cotton, can be traced to African influences. African American foods reflect creative responses to racial and economic oppression and poverty. Under slavery, African Americans were not allowed to eat better cuts of meat, and after emancipation many often were too poor to afford them. Soul food, a hearty cuisine commonly associated with African Americans in the South (but also common to African Americans nationwide), makes cre.